Ubiquitin/Proteasome System

However, commercial LFAs have several limitations, including poorer sensitivity and lower specificity compared to those of laboratory tests (e

However, commercial LFAs have several limitations, including poorer sensitivity and lower specificity compared to those of laboratory tests (e.g., enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)) (Carter et al., 2020; Udugama et al., 2020; van Kasteren et al., 2020; Wolfel et al., 2020). Research is underway to improve the sensitivity and specificity of LFAs to achieve more accurate and high-performance POCT. self-testing, especially in the COVID-19 pandemic and endemic global context. Keywords: Lateral flow assay, SARS-CoV-2 IgG, COVID-19, Self-testing, Biomarker, Preconcentration 1.?Introduction Lateral flow assays (LFAs) have demonstrated practical clinical utility as feasible point-of-care testing (POCT) platforms Hoechst 33342 that satisfy most of the World Health Organization’s ASSURED criteria (affordable, sensitive, specific, user-friendly, rapid/robust, equipment-free, and deliverable to end users) regarding many self-testing products (i.e., pregnancy, influenza A/B, and malaria diagnostic tests). Moreover, as LFAs use fluidic flow under capillary action, no external power equipment (e.g., pumps or centrifuges) is required for device operation. However, commercial LFAs have several limitations, including poorer sensitivity and lower specificity compared to those of laboratory tests (e.g., enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)) (Carter et al., 2020; Udugama et al., 2020; van Kasteren et al., 2020; Wolfel et al., 2020). Research is underway to improve the sensitivity and specificity of LFAs to achieve more accurate and high-performance POCT. Such investigations have primarily focused on assay optimization (reagent and receptor) (Dighe et al., 2022; Garg et al., 2021; Grant et al., 2020; Yu et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021), signal amplification (chemical enhancement and electrochemistry and fluorescence reader) (Cheng et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017, 2021), and sample enrichment (magnetic separation and electrokinetic pre-concentration) (Kang et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021a, Wang et al., 2021b; Zhou et al., 2021) to achieve high sensitivity and selectivity (Dempsey and Rathod, 2018 Han et al., 2020; LEPREL2 antibody Jia et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019; Loynachan et al., 2018; Mu et Hoechst 33342 al., 2019; Niu et al., 2020, Niu et al., 2021; Ojaghi et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2014). As one of the sample enrichment techniques, our group described a nanoelectrokinetic (NEK)-based method for sample enrichment on paper, illustrating that bovine serum albumin (BSA) can be preconcentrated by up to five times the initial concentration in serum (Han et al., 2018; Jeong et al., 2018). Further, this method was integrated with the commercial pregnancy LFA to increase the limit of detection (LOD) by 2.69-fold) and analytical sensitivity by 26%, illustrating a linear relationship between these variables (Kim et al., 2017). Most recently, we developed a large-volume preconcentrator (LVP) platform using the NEK concentration technology (Lee et al., 2021). Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is currently spreading rapidly worldwide, and the WHO Hoechst 33342 declared the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) a pandemic on March 11, 2020 (Chinazzi et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Menni et al., 2020; Salje et al., 2020; Tian et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). In the beginning of 2022, the omicron variant became the dominant variant in many countries since it replicated faster than all other SARS-CoV-2 variants. In the pandemic and endemic period following expansion of the omicron variant, a highly sensitive LFA is an optimal candidate for companion diagnostics. For example, fast detection enables immediate treatment with antiviral drugs, such as Paxlovid, for COVID-19 via oral route. In addition, rapid and highly sensitive on-site serological assays to measure antibody levels during COVID-19 are extremely important for monitoring immunological responses to SARS-CoV-2 in various clinical environments. However, the general method incurs high costs due to the required manpower and equipment, leading to health care inequality in low-income countries (Orach, 2009). To resolve this issue, an inexpensive POCT technology is required, and self-testing using paper based Hoechst 33342 LFA has emerged as a promising technology. For example, our study confirmed the applicability of SARS-CoV-2 antibody diagnosis using an LFA. SARS-CoV-2 antibody testing could provide crucial information on convalescence from COVID-19, and will likely help determine the level of community immunity, especially in the endemic period after the rapid spread of the.

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